Baterias pb-ácido

Journal of Power Sources 107 (2002) 280–300
Manufacturing and operational issues with lead-acid batteries
D.A.J. Randa,*, D.P. Bodenb, C.S. Lakshmic, R.F. Nelsond, R.D. Prengamane b CSIRO Energy Technology, P.O. Box 312, Clayton South, Victoria 3169, Australia
Hammond Expanders Division of Hammond Group Inc., 2323 165th Street, Hammond, IN 46323, USA cPasminco, P.O. Box 175, Boolaroo, NSW 2284, Australia dRecombination Technologies, 909 Santa Fe Drive, Denver, CO 80204, USA eRSR Technologies Inc., 2777 Stemmons Freeway, Suite 1800, Dallas, TX 75207, USA
Received 1 December 2001; accepted 7 December 2001 a Abstract An expert panel replies to questions on lead-acid technology and performance asked by delegates to the Ninth Asian Battery Conference.
The subjects are as follows. Grid alloys: effects of calcium and tin levels on microstructure, corrosion, mechanical and electrochemical properties; effect of alloy-fabrication process on mechanical strength and corrosion resistance; low dross-make during casting of lead– calcium–tin alloys; future of book-mould casting; effect of increasing levels of silver; stability of continuously processed grids at high temperature. Negative-plate expanders: function of lignosulfonates and barium sulfate; benefits of pre-blended expanders; optimum expander formulations. Valve-regulated batteries: effect of oxygen cycle; optimum methods for float charging; charging and deep-cycle lifetimes; reliability testing. # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Charging; Expander; Grid alloy; Lead-acid battery; Performance; Valve-regulated
1. Grid alloys
1.1. Question: How do calcium and tin levels in the lead alloy affect the microstructure and properties of grids? (C.S. LAKSHMI)
1.1.1. General metallurgical background
1.1.1.1. Microstructural control. The properties and be- haviour of metallic materials originate from their internal structure. Many properties, such as mechanical